The Avalanche Terrain Exposure Scale (ATES) v.2
Grant Statham and Cam Campbell
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. Discuss., https//doi.org/10.5194/nhess-2024-89,2024
Preprint under review for NHESS (discussion: open, 0 comments)
The Avalanche Terrain Exposure Scale (ATES) is an avalanche terrain rating system used for terrain assessment and risk communication in public and workplace avalanche safety practices. This paper introduces ATES v.2, an update to the system that expands the original scale from three levels to five by including Class 0 – Non-Avalanche Terrain, and Class 4 – Extreme Terrain. The updated models for assessment and communication are described in detail, along with methods for the application of ATES.
Predicting Deep-Seated Landslide Displacements in Mountains through the Integration of Convolutional Neural Networks and Age of Exploration-Inspired Optimizer
Jui-Sheng Chou, Hoang-Minh Nguyen, Huy-Phuong Phan, and Kuo-Lung Wang
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. Discuss., https//doi.org/10.5194/nhess-2024-86,2024
Preprint under review for NHESS (discussion: open, 0 comments)
This study enhances landslide prediction using advanced machine learning, including new algorithms inspired by historical explorations. The research accurately forecasts landslide movements by analyzing eight years of data from Taiwan's Lushan Mountain, improving early warnings and potentially saving lives and infrastructure. This integration marks a significant advancement in environmental risk management.
EvalHyd v0.1.2: a polyglot tool for the evaluation of deterministic and probabilistic streamflow predictions
Thibault Hallouin, François Bourgin, Charles Perrin, Maria-Helena Ramos, and Vazken Andréassian
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 4561–4578, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-4561-2024, 2024
The evaluation of the quality of hydrological model outputs against streamflow observations is widespread in the hydrological literature. In order to improve on the reproducibility of published studies, a new evaluation tool dedicated to hydrological applications is presented. It is open source and usable in a variety of programming languages to make it as accessible as possible to the community. Thus, authors and readers alike can use the same tool to produce and reproduce the results.
A general comprehensive evaluation method for cross-scale precipitation forecasts
Bing Zhang, Mingjian Zeng, Anning Huang, Zhengkun Qin, Couhua Liu, Wenru Shi, Xin Li, Kefeng Zhu, Chunlei Gu, and Jialing Zhou
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 4579–4601, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-4579-2024, 2024
By directly analyzing the proximity of precipitation forecasts and observations, a precipitation accuracy score (PAS) method was constructed. This method does not utilize a traditional contingency-table-based classification verification; however, it can replace the threat score (TS), equitable threat score (ETS), and other skill score methods, and it can be used to calculate the accuracy of numerical models or quantitative precipitation forecasts.
sedInterFoam 1.0: a three-phase numerical model for sediment transport applications with free surfaces
Antoine Mathieu, Yeulwoo Kim, Tian-Jian Hsu, Cyrille Bonamy, and Julien Chauchat
Geosci. Model Dev. Discuss., https//doi.org/10.5194/gmd-2024-16,2024
Preprint under review for GMD (discussion: open, 0 comments)
Most of the tools available to model sediment transport do not account for complex physical mechanisms such as surface wave driven processes. In this study, a new model sedInterFoam allows to reproduce numerically complex configurations to investigate coastal sediment transport applications dominated by surface waves and gain insight into the complex physical processes associated with breaking waves and morphodynamics.
Impact of horizontal resolution and model time step on European precipitation extremes in the OpenIFS 43r3 atmosphere model
Yingxue Liu, Joakim Kjellsson, Abhishek Savita, and Wonsun Park
Geosci. Model Dev. Discuss., https//doi.org/10.5194/gmd-2024-66,2024
Preprint under review for GMD (discussion: open, 0 comments)
The impact of horizontal resolution and model time step on extreme precipitation over Europe is examined in OpenIFS. We find that the biases are reduced with increasing horizontal resolution, but not with reducing time step. The large-scale precipitation is more sensitive to the horizontal resolution, however, the convective precipitation is more sensitive to the model time step. Increasing horizontal resolution is more important for extreme precipitation simulation that reducing time step.
The first microwave and submillimetre closure study using particle models of oriented ice hydrometeors to simulate polarimetric measurements of ice clouds
Karina McCusker, Anthony J. Baran, Chris Westbrook, Stuart Fox, Patrick Eriksson, Richard Cotton, Julien Delanoë, and Florian Ewald
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 17, 3533–3552, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-17-3533-2024, 2024
Polarised radiative transfer simulations are performed using an atmospheric model based on in situ measurements. These are compared to large polarisation measurements to explore whether such measurements can provide information on cloud ice, e.g. particle shape and orientation. We find that using oriented particle models with shapes based on imagery generally allows for accurate simulations. However, results are sensitive to shape assumptions such as the choice of single crystals or aggregates.
High Spectral Resolution Lidar – generation 2 (HSRL-2) retrievals of ocean surface wind speed: methodology and evaluation
Sanja Dmitrovic, Johnathan W. Hair, Brian L. Collister, Ewan Crosbie, Marta A. Fenn, Richard A. Ferrare, David B. Harper, Chris A. Hostetler, Yongxiang Hu, John A. Reagan, Claire E. Robinson, Shane T. Seaman, Taylor J. Shingler, Kenneth L. Thornhill, Holger Vömel, Xubin Zeng, and Armin Sorooshian
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 17, 3515–3532, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-17-3515-2024, 2024
This study introduces and evaluates a new ocean surface wind speed product from the NASA Langley Research Center (LARC) airborne High-Spectral-Resolution Lidar – Generation 2 (HSRL-2) during the NASA ACTIVATE mission. We show that HSRL-2 surface wind speed data are accurate when compared to ground-truth dropsonde measurements. Therefore, the HSRL-2 instrument is able obtain accurate, high-resolution surface wind speed data in airborne field campaigns.
On the importance of middle-atmosphere observations on ionospheric dynamics using WACCM-X and SAMI3
Fabrizio Sassi, Angeline G. Burrell, Sarah E. McDonald, Jennifer L. Tate, and John P. McCormack
Ann. Geophys., 42, 255–269, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-42-255-2024, 2024
This study shows how middle-atmospheric data (starting at 40 km) affect day-to-day ionospheric variability. We do this by using lower atmospheric measurements that include and exclude the middle atmosphere in a coupled ionosphere–thermosphere model. Comparing the two simulations reveals differences in two thermosphere–ionosphere coupling mechanisms. Additionally, comparison against observations showed that including the middle-atmospheric data improved the resulting ionosphere.
Abstract
Medium-scale traveling ionospheric disturbances (MSTIDs) can significantly alter a region's ionosphere features, severely impacting the performance and stability of services such as shortwave communication and navigation positioning. By utilizing the total electron content (TEC) data from BeiDou geostationary satellites for 2022–2023, this study investigated the characteristics of MSTIDs over Hong Kong concerning local time and seasons. A total of 622 MSTID events were observed, classified into three types: daytime (10:00–17:00 LT), twilight (17:00–22:00 LT), and nighttime (22:00–02:00 LT). The occurrence rates and excitation mechanisms of the three types of MSTIDs were analyzed. Daytime and twilight MSTIDs had higher occurrence rates during winter, while nighttime MSTIDs had higher occurrence rates in summer and were even absent during winter. Overall, daytime MSTIDs were the most common, followed by twilight MSTIDs, while nighttime MSTIDs were less frequent. The propagation directions of MSTIDs exhibited anisotropy but showed some clustering patterns. Daytime MSTIDs exhibited high directional diversity during summer, but more concentrated in winter. Nighttime MSTIDs, on the other hand, were more focused during summer. It is worth noting that twilight MSTIDs exhibit similar climatological characteristics to daytime MSTIDs, which have not been observed in previous studies. It is suggested that daytime MSTIDs in the Hong Kong region are likely primarily generated by atmospheric gravity waves (AGWs) from low-latitude regions, while nighttime MSTIDs are likely caused by Perkins instability. Twilight MSTIDs may originate from AGWs at the solar terminator, as well as daytime MSTIDs propagated from mid-latitude areas.
Abstract
Fault regions inferred to be slowly slipping are interpreted to accommodate much of tectonic plate motion aseismically and potentially serve as barriers to earthquake rupture. Here, we build on prior work using simulations of earthquake sequences with enhanced dynamic fault weakening to show how fault regions that exhibit decades of steady creep or transient slow-slip events can be driven to dynamically fail by incoming earthquake ruptures. Following substantial earthquake slip, such regions can be under-stressed and locked for centuries prior to slowly slipping again. Our simulations illustrate that slow fault slip indicates that a region is sufficiently loaded to be failing about its quasi-static strength. Hence, if a fault region is susceptible to failing dynamically, then observations of slow slip could serve as an indication that the region is critically stressed and ready to fail in a future earthquake, posing a qualitatively different interpretation of slow slip for seismic hazard.
Abstract
Applying machine learning to continuous acoustic emissions, signals previously deemed noise, from laboratory faults and slowly slipping subduction-zone faults, demonstrates hidden signatures are emitted that describe physical details, including fault displacement and friction. However, no evidence currently exists to demonstrate that similar hidden signals occur during seismogenic stick-slip on earthquake faults—the damaging earthquakes of most societal interest. We show that continuous seismic emissions emitted during the 2018 multi-month caldera collapse sequence at the Kı̄lauea volcano in Hawai'i contain hidden signatures characterizing the earthquake cycle. Multi-spectral data features extracted from 30 s intervals of the continuous seismic emission are used to train a gradient boosted tree regression model to predict the GNSS-derived contemporaneous surface displacement and time-to-failure of the upcoming collapse event. This striking result suggests that at least some faults emit such signals and provide a potential path to characterizing the instantaneous and future behavior of earthquake faults.
Abstract
The El Niño-Southern Oscillation causes anomalous atmospheric circulation, temperature and precipitation across southern polar latitudes, but the influence of Central and Eastern Pacific El Niño events on Antarctic surface mass balance and snow accumulation has not yet been assessed. Here, we use reanalysis and reanalysis-forced regional climate model output and find that Central Pacific El Niño results in significantly increased snow accumulation in the western Ross Sea sector and significantly decreased snow accumulation in the Amundsen Sea sector. Eastern Pacific El Niño is associated with similar but weaker patterns, with some regional exceptions. In some areas, like Dronning Maud Land, or the Wilkes Subglacial Basin, the effect of El Niño on snow accumulation changes from increased to reduced accumulation depending on the type of El Niño. Our results show that projecting El Niño types is important for constraining future changes in Antarctic surface mass balance.
Abstract
The sediment mixed layer (SML) in the deep ocean is an important interface with a rich diversity of benthic organisms. With increasing ocean mineral exploration, and eventual mining, the effect of sediment mixing on deep ocean ecosystems has raised considerable concern. We evaluate the distribution patterns and driving factors of SML depth in deep ocean nodule fields using naturally occurring 210Pb–226Ra isotopes. Results show that average SML depth has increased in Mn-nodule fields since the end of the last century. SML processes are associated with significant desorption of 226Ra from sediments, resulting in a departure from radioactive equilibrium. By estimating possible driving factors, we conclude that anthropogenic exploration activities, rather than natural physical and/or biological drivers, are the most likely mechanism for intensified sediment mixing. 210Pb–226Ra disequilibria may be a potential tracer for quantifying the impact of human exploration on deep-ocean sediment mixing and associated biological and geochemical effects.
Abstract
A mini-neutron monitor (MNM) was installed at the German Antarctic Neumayer III station, measuring the variation of galactic cosmic rays and searching for Forbush Decreases (FDs) caused by solar activities. Running continuously from 2014 until the end of 2017, the long-term stability of the detector could be investigated. After correcting the air pressure and normalization to the 27 days running mean averages of the SANAE and TERA Neutron Monitors (NMs), the daily running mean count rates are compared with the SANAE and TERA NMs also installed in Antarctica. For most of the 14 FDs with magnitudes greater than 3, taken from the list compiled by the IZMIRAN group (http://spaceweather.izmiran.ru/eng/dbs.html), the three detectors show consistent particle flux variation, although the average rate of the MNM is more than a hundred times smaller. The light and low-cost MNM is an ideal alternative to heavy and old NMs, especially at high altitudes and remote environments.
Abstract
In this paper, we study Titan's magnetotail using Cassini data from the T122-T126 flybys. These consecutive flybys had a similar flyby geometry and occurred at similar Saturn magnetospheric conditions, enabling an analysis of the magnetotail's structure. Using measurements from Cassini's magnetometer (MAG) and Radio and Plasma Wave System/Langmuir probe (RPWS/LP) we identify several features consistent with reported findings from earlier flybys, for example, T9, T63 and T75. We find that the so-called ’split’ signature of the magnetotail becomes more prominent at distances of at least 3,260 km (1.3 R
T
) downstream of Titan. We also identify a specific signature of the sub-alfvenic interaction of Titan with Saturn, the Alfvén wings, which are observed during the T123 and T124 flyby. A coordinate transformation is applied to mitigate variations in the upstream magnetic field, and all the flybys are projected into a new reference frame—aligned to the background magnetic field reference frame (BFA). We show that Titan's magnetotail is confined to a narrow region of around ∼4 R
T
Y
BFA
. Finally, we analyze the general draping pattern in Titan's magnetotail throughout the TA to T126 flybys.
Abstract
The SEM-2 (Space Environment Monitor-2) instrument embedded on the NOAA-15 Low Earth Orbit satellite provides measurements of trapped protons in the Van Allen inner belt from 1998 to nowadays. This continuous set of measurements enables us to study the dynamics of the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) over more than two solar cycles, particularly, its temporal evolution. We observe that the area of the SAA is anti-correlated with the solar activity. Two physical processes explain this anticorrelation. First, the more the Sun is active the more it disables the cosmic rays to reach the Earth's magnetosphere and fill in the inner radiation belt with protons. Then, when the Sun is more active, the upper atmosphere is warmer and therefore absorbs more protons from the radiation belt. Then, we investigate the protons flux centroid of the SAA. The temporal evolution of its position, latitude and, longitude is studied over the same time interval (1998–2022). We notice that the latitude of the centroid is also anti-correlated with the solar activity whereas the longitude seems absolutely independent. The temporal evolution of the position of the centroid shows a drift of the SAA. Indeed from 1998 to 2022 the SAA drifted of about 7° West. The SEM-2 instrument measures flux for protons of different energies (16, 36, 70, and, 140 MeV). For each energy, the SAA dynamic has a similar trend but with different values. These differences are investigated and the results are discussed.
Abstract
Perchlorate in the environment originates from both natural and anthropogenic sources. A previous study of a 300-year Greenland ice core perchlorate record found that anthropogenic impact on environmental perchlorate became significant starting around 1980, while natural formation is the only significant source of environmental perchlorate prior to that. The study also found increased perchlorate deposition in the Arctic following certain volcanic eruptions and suggested that at least some volcanic eruptions could enhance natural perchlorate production. Here we compare the perchlorate record with the volcanic record from sulfate in the same Greenland ice core and find that only stratospheric eruptions—large eruptions injecting volcanic substances directly into the stratosphere—enhance perchlorate production. No contribution to naturally formed perchlorate is detected from non-stratospheric eruptions. The high-resolution ice core perchlorate data are used to quantify contributions from volcanic eruptions, non-volcanic natural processes, as well as from human activities during different periods. For the location in the Arctic in the perchlorate Pre-Anthropogenic Era (1701–1979), the magnitude (0.26 μg m−2 yr−1 on average) of perchlorate produced during sporadic stratospheric eruptions is comparable to that (0.23 μg m−2 yr−1) produced by non-volcanic natural processes. In the Anthropogenic Era (1980–2006), the magnitude of both the volcanic and non-volcanic natural perchlorate production is similar to the enhancement (0.29 μg m−2 yr−1) by human activities.
Abstract
Previous studies have suggested possible connections between the decreasing Arctic sea-ice and long-duration (>5 days, LD) cold weather events in Eurasia and North America. Here we document the occurrences of weather regimes in winter by their durations, based on the empirical orthogonal function analyses of the daily geopotential height fields at 500 hPa (z500) for the months of November–March 1979–2019. Significant changes in the occurrence frequency and persistence of Ural ridge (UR) and weak stratospheric polar vortex (PV) were found between winters following high and low autumn sea-ice covers (SIC) in the Barents and Kara seas. It is shown that a strengthening of the UR is accompanied with a weakening of the PV, and a weak PV favors Greenland ridge (GR). Cold spells in East Asia persist for 5 more days after an LDUR. Cold spells from Canada to the U.S. occur 2–5 days after an LD Ural trough (UT) and are associated with a z500 anomaly dipole centered over Alaska (+) and Hudson Bay (−). Cold spells in the eastern U.S. occur 1–4 days after an LDGR due to circulations resembling the Pacific-North America pattern. Increased occurrences of UR in winter are associated with a decreased eastward propagation of synoptic waves from the North Atlantic to Japan and the North Pacific.
Abstract
As the number of satellites on orbit grows it is increasingly important to understand their operating environment. Physics-based models can simulate the behavior of the Earth's radiation belts by solving a Fokker-Planck equation. Three-dimensional models use diffusion coefficients to represent the interactions between electromagnetic waves and the electrons. One-dimensional radial diffusion models neglect the effects of energy diffusion and represent the losses due to the waves with a loss timescale. Both approaches may use pitch angle distributions (PADs) to create boundary conditions, to map observations from low to high equatorial pitch angles and to calculate phase-space density from observations. We present a comprehensive set of consistent PADs and loss timescales for 2 ≤ L* ≤ 7, 100 keV ≤ E ≤ 5 MeV and all levels of geomagnetic activity determined by the Kp index. These are calculated from drift-averaged diffusion coefficients that represent all the VLF waves that typically interact with radiation belt electrons and show good agreement with data. The contribution of individual waves is demonstrated; magnetosonic waves have little effect on loss timescales when lightning-generated whistlers are present, and chorus waves contribute to loss even in low levels of geomagnetic activity. The PADs vary in shape depending on the dominant waves. When chorus is dominant the distributions have little activity dependence, unlike the corresponding loss timescales. Distributions peaked near 90° are formed by plasmaspheric hiss for L* ≤ 3 and E < 1 MeV, and by EMIC waves for L* > 3 and E > 1 MeV. When hiss dominates, increasing activity broadens the distribution but when EMIC waves dominate increasing activity narrows the distribution.
