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As winter turned to spring, the skies over the Gulf of Alaska displayed textbook examples of numerous cloud formations. Winter 2026 roared to an end in southern Alaska as parts of the coast saw below-normal temperatures and bouts of moderate to heavy snow. Viewed from above, the region's atmospheric instability was apparent in the striking display of cloud formations just offshore.

The southern Appalachians hold an estimated 1.43 million metric tons of lithium oxide, concentrated in the Carolinas, and the northern Appalachians hold an estimated 900,000 metric tons, concentrated in Maine and New Hampshire, according to estimates in a new USGS scientific paper published in Natural Resources Research. The lithium is present in pegmatites, large-grained rocks similar to granite.

The number of wildfires burning in the Western United States each year dropped roughly 28% over the past three decades, even as annual burned area and damage from wildfires have soared. A decline in fires accidentally sparked by humans accounts for over 40% of the overall trend, according to a new study.

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The coal industry can damage human health in myriad ways via dangerous working conditions and harmful pollution. But the income opportunities offered by the industry can also provide much-needed stability for certain communities, such as those in Appalachia’s coal country.

“Being employed is good for your health, but environmental pollution is bad for your health, and these two things are operating at the same time in some communities,” said Mary Willis, an epidemiologist at Boston University.

The industry, though, is changing. Total coal production in the United States peaked in 2008, and the number of miners has steadily dropped since then.

Total coal production peaked in the United States in 2008, after which the number of coal miners declined, too. Credit: Thombs et al., 2026, https://doi.org/10.1111/ruso.70034, CC BY 4.0

A new study coauthored by Willis and published in Rural Sociology delves into the effects of this decline on life expectancies across the United States and in Appalachia in particular. The results show that a disappearing coal mining industry has mixed effects on health, highlighting the importance of a “just transition”—a shift away from coal mining and toward clean energy that also prioritizes decent work opportunities for those left without a job.

“How do we balance these two conflicting priorities?” Willis said.

Delving into the Decline

Coal production and consumption are linked to many human health harms, including heart disease, asthma, lung cancer, mental illness, and more. But how those health impacts intersect with the broader economic effects of mining has not been well studied.

In the new study, the research team analyzed the effects of the declining industry through the lens of the social determinants of health, or how social structures influence health outcomes.

Researchers analyzed how coal mining impacts life expectancies via three pathways: production, mining labor time, and employment. Credit: Thombs et al., 2026, https://doi.org/10.1111/ruso.70034, CC BY 4.0

To study these effects, the team compared coal mining data from the U.S. Energy Information Administration to life expectancy data from the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation at the University of Washington from 2012 to 2019. Life expectancy is a metric that can be responsive to subtle changes in the environment, Willis explained. For example, the decommissioning of a coal-fired power plant a few miles away from a community may not affect residents’ day-to-day life but probably affects the scale of life expectancy across the population.

In coal-producing counties across the United States, the average life expectancy was 1.6 years lower than that in non-coal-producing counties. But the declining coal industry had more nuanced impacts on health in Appalachian communities, the researchers found. As coal production fell and miner labor hours decreased, life expectancy increased. But as the number of jobs available decreased, life expectancy decreased, too.

The findings suggest that the employment and associated economic impacts of a waning coal industry harm health. Previous studies documented similar increases in mortality in other regions where the fossil fuel industry has declined. Such research has indicated that these increased mortality rates may be partially driven by “deaths of despair” from drug and alcohol use and suicide related to economic distress. The association of these factors with mortality rates in coal country, the authors suggest, may be an area for future study.

Understanding that coal mining is associated with some positive economic and health effects is “an important perspective for understanding the sector as a whole,” said Lucas Henneman, an environmental engineer at George Mason University who was not involved in the new study. “It’s a really interesting piece of work.”

“This is just a really complex story that hasn’t been told yet—putting health into the context of these just energy transitions,” Willis said.

The complex reality of the coal industry extends beyond Appalachia. Most of the pollution related to the coal industry consists of toxins released when coal is burned, meaning those who bear the brunt of coal’s health impacts may not be located where coal is mined, Henneman said.

In fact, a 2023 study by Henneman and others found that before 2009, a quarter of all air pollution–related deaths of people on Medicare were attributable to coal burning. From 2013 to 2020, that number dropped to 7%, alongside a drop in coal consumption. A complete picture of how the coal industry affects health should also consider how pollution travels beyond coal country—where it’s burned, how it’s transported in the air, and who ultimately breathes it in, he said.

A Just Transition

“The question is how to provide [jobs] in a way that provides the same level of stability, same kind of income benefits, and isn’t too much of a shock to [communities’] way of life or sense of identity.”

The economic activity of a mine, through direct employment as well as businesses reliant on the mine and miners, “chases away other opportunities,” making the mine the economic backbone of the area, said Jonathan Buonocore, an environmental health scientist at Boston University and a coauthor of the new study. The concept of a just transition aims to ensure that employment opportunities in the wake of the coal industry’s decline reach these communities.

“The question is how to provide [jobs] in a way that provides the same level of stability, same kind of income benefits, and isn’t too much of a shock to [communities’] way of life or sense of identity,” Buonocore said.

—Grace van Deelen (@gvd.bsky.social), Staff Writer

Citation: van Deelen, G. (2026), As the coal industry fades, life expectancies in coal country shift, Eos, 107, https://doi.org/10.1029/2026EO260134. Published on 30 April 2026. Text © 2026. AGU. CC BY-NC-ND 3.0
Except where otherwise noted, images are subject to copyright. Any reuse without express permission from the copyright owner is prohibited.

Source: Water Resources Research

Wildfires can increase flooding risks in and downstream of burned areas by removing vegetation and disturbing hydrologic processes. As the climate changes, the severity of both wildfires and heavy rainfall events is increasing, meaning flooding is likely to become more severe in the near future. Better understanding how, and by how much, wildfires change flood risk is important for disaster and infrastructure planning for communities around the country.

Canham and Lane used streamflow data from the U.S. Geological Survey’s National Water Information System and precipitation data from the NOAA Analysis of Record for Calibration product to identify storms and quantify their effects across seven burned watersheds in the western United States.

To make the most of the limited data on flooding in the years following wildfires, the researchers created a paired-storms framework: They identified postfire peak flows (PFPFs), defined as the five highest peak flows within 3 years of a wildfire across seven watersheds. Then, for each precipitation event causing a PFPF, they looked for storms with similar characteristics (or paired storms) that occurred before the wildfire. Storm characteristics used for pairing included the season in which the storm occurred, recent precipitation, and precipitation depth, duration, and peak intensity.

The researchers found significantly elevated peak flows after wildfires in many cases, underlining the risks to communities following wildfires and validating their approach for use elsewhere.

Altogether, the authors found 26 PFPF events, including 20 with paired storms occurring before wildfires. For 75% of the postfire storms, their peak flows were 2 or more times greater than prefire peak flows. PFPFs were most likely to happen in the first year after a wildfire and typically occurred following storms that were centered upstream of the watershed centroid, were uniform in shape, and fully covered the watershed and burned area, the authors reported. They also found some evidence that the first storm in the year immediately following a fire has a higher-than-expected chance of producing a PFPF.

Future work could look more deeply at the characteristics of storms occurring over burned areas, such as storm direction and watershed recovery, and could apply the automated methods to more burned watersheds and storm events to enhance the robustness of the work, the authors say. (Water Resources Research, https://doi.org/10.1029/2025WR040693, 2026)

—Nathaniel Scharping (@nathanielscharp), Science Writer

Citation: Scharping, N. (2026), How wildfires worsen flood risk, Eos, 107, https://doi.org/10.1029/2026EO260133. Published on 30 April 2026. Text © 2026. AGU. CC BY-NC-ND 3.0
Except where otherwise noted, images are subject to copyright. Any reuse without express permission from the copyright owner is prohibited.

Editors’ Highlights are summaries of recent papers by AGU’s journal editors. Source: AGU Advances

The albedo change of marine clouds is achieved by targeted additions of aerosols, and in particular, sea salt. To assess the viability of Marine Cloud Brightening (MCB) requires a fundamental understanding of the impact of aerosols on cloud evolution and properties, and on the cloud environment.

Doherty et al. [2026] propose a framework for studying MCB across scales. This includes small- to large-scale studies aimed at systematically characterizing the life-cycle of aerosols and the diurnal cycle of cloud processes, how these change with the magnitude, duration and type of aerosol applied, and monitoring potential harmful direct or indirect consequences of aerosol injection, such as regional changes in temperature or precipitation.

Possible configuration for a Stage III study for measuring local scale cloud responses to a single plume of generated sea salt aerosol sized for marine cloud brightening. Credit: Doherty et al. [2026], Figure 4

Citation: Doherty, S. J., Diamond, M. S., Wood, R., & Hirasawa, H. (2026). Defining scales of field studies and experiments to assess marine cloud brightening. AGU Advances,7, e2025AV001939. https://doi.org/10.1029/2025AV001939

—Ana P. Barros, Editor, AGU Advances

Text © 2026. The authors. CC BY-NC-ND 3.0
Except where otherwise noted, images are subject to copyright. Any reuse without express permission from the copyright owner is prohibited.

Snow cover in the mountains of Greece—an important water source for communities, agriculture and natural ecosystems during the dry summer months—has more than halved over the past four decades, a study has found.

SummaryThe updated earthquake catalog for Iraq covers the period from 1900 to the end of 2021 and includes over 37 000 recorded earthquakes. To create this comprehensive catalog, five key steps were taken: compiling bulletins, calculating moment magnitudes, harmonizing magnitudes, establishing empirical conversion relations, and evaluating the completeness of the catalog. A notable enhancement in this update is the direct calculation of moment magnitudes for approximately 2 800 earthquakes, achieved through the coda envelope technique and waveform data from the Mesopotamian Seismological Network (MPSN) in Iraq. This updated catalog serves as a valuable resource for examining the spatiotemporal distribution of earthquakes, with respect to earthquake density, maximum moment magnitude, and seismogenic depths. Additionally, the Gutenberg-Richter relationship was applied to calculate the a- and b-values specific to Iraq. The findings show that the Zagros Fold-Thrust Belt has a seismogenic layer (source) that ranges from 2 to 33 km deep and experiences high seismic activity. In contrast, the Mesopotamian Foredeep has a seismogenic layer ranging from 1 to 25 km deep and has lower seismic activity. The greatest seismic activity is concentrated around the Mandili-Badra-Teeb fault, which has experienced significant ruptures over time. The Outer Arabian Platform is identified as the main area of seismic activity, while additional activity occurs on the Inner Arabian Platform. Three major tectonic boundaries define the distribution of earthquakes in the northeastern Arabian Plate. These boundaries are defined by the Main Zagros Reverse Fault, the Zagros Foredeep Fault, and the Anah Graben and Abu Jir-Euphrates Fault Zone. These boundaries highlight variations in seismicity levels and the spatial distribution of deformation in the region. The updated earthquake catalog presented in this study is expected to play a vital role in regional seismicity assessments and seismic hazard analyses for Iraq and its surrounding areas.

SummaryThree-dimensional (3D) gravity inversion for subsurface density reconstruction is a highly ill-posed and non-unique problem due to the intrinsic ambiguity of gravity data and the high dimensionality of the model space. Conventional inversion methods typically rely on iterative optimization with explicit regularization, which can be computationally expensive and sensitive to parameter selection, often leading to smoothed models and limited resolution. In this study, we propose a physics-guided multi-scale encoder-decoder convolutional neural network (CNN) for efficient and physically consistent 3D density gravity inversion. The network establishes a direct nonlinear mapping from two-dimensional gravity anomaly or gravity gradient data to 3D subsurface density models by integrating hierarchical multi-scale feature extraction, dense skip connections, and deep supervision. To enforce geophysical consistency, a gravity forward operator is embedded into the loss function, constraining the inversion results to honor the governing physical laws. Numerical experiments using progressively complex synthetic models-including single-prism, double-prism, inclined staircase structures and irregular complex model-demonstrate that the proposed method accurately recovers density magnitudes, spatial geometry, sharp boundaries, depth discontinuities, and opposing density polarities, while producing gravity responses that closely match the observations. Application to airborne gravity gradient data over the Vinton salt dome further validates the method under realistic conditions, yielding geologically plausible density models compared with previously published conventional regularized and Bayesian inversion approaches. These results indicate that the proposed physics-guided CNN provides a robust, accurate, and computationally efficient alternative for large-scale and complex 3D gravity inversion problems in real-world geophysical applications

SummaryA seismic refraction study has been carried out across the seismically active pericratonic Kachchh basin, formed as a failed rift during the Mesozoic breakup of Gondwanaland. The basin was significantly affected by the Reunion plume that emplaced massive Deccan flood basalts. Inversion of traveltimes derived from the seismic data reveals a six-layered complex structure, with P-wave velocities ranging between 1.90–5.20 km/s for sediments and 5.85–6.10 km/s for the basement. Synthesis of seismic refraction, reflection, gravity, and well data indicates a variability in the basement depth from 2.2 km in the north to 5.7 km in the south. A basement upwarp of 1.3 and 2.2 km in the north and south is related to the Pachchham and Kachchh mainland uplifts. Traveltime skips of the first arrivals imply low-velocity Mesozoic sediments previously obscured beneath the high-velocity Deccan Traps. We propose thick sediments in the southern part with abundant source, reservoir, and cap rocks, which are potential hydrocarbon prospects. The present study also illuminates several faults, which act as stress concentrators. We postulate that the far-field compressional forces generated due to India-Eurasia collision and local stresses caused by the heterogeneous structure are responsible for the basement upwarp, uplift of the Kachchh mainland, reactivation of faults, and high seismicity of the region. We attribute the western plate boundary located ~400 km away from the Kachchh region as a probable causative for the Median High, a Hinze zone covering the basin and beyond. An evolutionary model of the basin is suggested.

SummaryThe intrinsic attenuation of a seismic wave is a key property of rocks. Knowledge of Q (quality factor), which measures the attenuation, provides information not only about the type of rock, but above all about the pore fluids. In addition, the attenuation is needed for inverse Q filtering and is useful for localizing seismic sources. The methods for determining Q are based on the amplitude and frequency content of the signal, e.g. the spectral ratio and frequency shift methods. In this paper, we consider a nearly frequency-independent Q factor so that the attenuation factor is proportional to frequency, so that high frequencies are attenuated. We use the frequency shifts (from the source to the receiver) to estimate the Q-factor for media with arbitrary geometric interfaces. The amplitude can be affected by factors other than attenuation, namely, geometric spreading and transmission coefficient. The shifts depend on the type of spectrum, which differs for seismic, microseismic and seismological (earthquake) sources. The inversion for Q assumes that the source spectrum is known, as well as the seismic velocities and the location of the interfaces and the source. On the other hand, if Q is known, sources can be located based on a generalization of the Battaglia-Aki method to heterogeneous media and using the centroid of the spectrum and the traveltimes at the receivers instead of the amplitude of the signal in the time domain. Alternatively, we provide formulas for the maximum of the signal spectrum that can also be used (peak frequency shift). Modeling and inversion is performed with 2D and 3D ray tracing algorithms based on Fibonacci search and minimizations with the Praxis algorithm and simulated annealing. We generate synthetic test seismograms with a direct 2D full-wave algorithm based on the pseudo-spectral Fourier method, compare the results with those of ray tracing, and use the minimization algorithm in combination with ray tracing to determine the source location.

An international team of Earth scientists led by Utrecht professor Douwe van Hinsbergen has developed an online tool that allows you to see, for any given location on Earth, what latitude it occupied in the distant past, right back to the heyday of the supercontinent Pangea 320 million years ago. The work has been published in PLOS One.

body {background-color: #D2D1D5;} Research & Developments is a blog for brief updates that provide context for the flurry of news that impacts science and scientists today.

In the contiguous United States, crop irrigation, municipal water supplies, and thermoelectric power generation use more than 224 billion gallons of fresh water every day. Conducting water research or making decisions about water use, until now, often required referencing datasets across various agencies. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) National Water Availability Assessment Data Companion (NWDC), announced this week, aims to streamline this process. In part, the tool is designed to help decisionmakers better understand the balance between how high demand and limited supply affect water availability in their communities.

“While the United States has abundant water nationally, regional imbalances between supply and demand may create water challenges affecting millions of Americans,” said lead scientist Shirley Leung in a USGS press release. “What once required significant resources and time can now be done in minutes, giving communities of all sizes the same foundation for water planning.”

 
Related

•  New Nationwide Tool Helps Answer: Do We Have Enough Water?
•  About the National Water Availability Assessment Data Companion
•  Water Data for the Nation
 

The lower 48 states are home to about 80,000 sub-watersheds, from those in the arid southwest to the Great Lakes Basin, where about 84% of North America’s surface fresh water is located. According to the USGS, the NWDC is the first tool that integrates information about water availability in individual watersheds at a national scale.

The tool is designed to complement Water Data for the Nation (WDFN), another USGS product that consolidates observational data from the agency’s thousands of local monitoring stations gathering data on streams, lakes, reservoirs, precipitation, water quality, and groundwater. The new tool uses modeling to fill in spatial and temporal gaps between the observations made at these stations.

Water managers, researchers, agricultural experts, and others can use the NWDC to compare watershed conditions, identify seasonal patterns in water use, or to create data visualizations of statewide water use, for example. Though the tool currently covers only the contiguous United States, it will soon be extended to Alaska, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico, according to the USGS.

David Tarboton, a professor of civil engineering at the Utah Water Research Laboratory, said he was “intrigued” by the new tool, and is interested in examining the data its model produces. 

While Tarboton was disappointed that the tool’s most recent available data are from 2020, “having a sort of integrated, wall-to-wall dataset that’s consistently produced is very valuable,” he said. He works, in part, in the areas of hydroinformatics and data sharing, and noted that the modern methods the agency is using to share the data could be useful in developing automated tools.

—Emily Gardner (@emfurd.bsky.social), Associate Editor

These updates are made possible through information from the scientific community. Do you have a story about science or scientists? Send us a tip at eos@agu.org. Text © 2026. AGU. CC BY-NC-ND 3.0
Except where otherwise noted, images are subject to copyright. Any reuse without express permission from the copyright owner is prohibited.

A new study led by the University of Oxford and ETH Zurich reveals that a key part of the climate system—the large-scale wind patterns that determine where rain falls—can be underestimated by current climate models, helping explain why forecasts of regional rainfall remain uncertain. Ultimately, this insight could enable more confident projections of future rainfall patterns, supporting better preparation for floods and droughts.

The spread of antibiotic resistance, a growing threat to global health that causes millions of deaths annually, is typically blamed on the overuse of drugs in hospitals and in the food industry. However, a new study published in Nature Microbiology suggests that normal geological processes could be accelerating the development of new resistances.

Soil microorganisms naturally produce antibiotics as a form of chemical warfare to compete with each other. When soils dry out, these natural compounds become more concentrated because there is less water to dilute them. Like a dosage increase, this concentration can create a harsher environment, killing sensitive microbes and sparing those with the capacity to resist. This phenomenon, in turn, is an evolutive driver that favors the appearance of new and more effective resistance genes.

“If you have more antibiotics in your environment, only the organisms that can withstand it…can resist it.”

To test whether this mechanism is having real genetic effects, Xiaoyu Shan, a microbial ecologist and postdoctoral researcher at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech), and colleagues looked at soil samples under controlled conditions as the samples transitioned from a wet state to a desiccated one. They found that as the soil dried, the presence of genes related to antibiotic production and resistance spiked, suggesting that drought leads to a rapid escalation in the subterranean biological arms race. Importantly, they did not look for pathogenic bacteria specifically, only for resistance genes, which can be present in a variety of microbes, whether those microbes are pathogenic or not.

“Drought leads to this elevation of antibiotic producers and bacteria that are resistant,” said team member Dianne Newman, a professor of biology and geobiology also at Caltech. “It’s a pretty simple idea: If you have more antibiotics in your environment, only the organisms that can withstand it…can resist it.”

Alternative Explanations

However, there could be other potential explanations for the observed increase in antibiotic-producing and antibiotic resistance genes, according to Enrique Monte, a microbiologist at the Universidad de Salamanca in Spain who wasn’t involved with the new study. For instance, arid soils are naturally more diverse than humid soils, making it common to find a more diverse gene pool in the ground, Monte said. In addition, the mere presence of antibiotic genes might not result in an actual release to the environment, or a release could happen in dosages that are too small to cause noticeable effects. “There are antibiotics that are volatile; they escape into the air, so they never reach a therapeutic concentration to kill others,” Monte said.

The authors, however, took some precautions to show that the increase in antibiotic resistance genes was actually a biological response to environmental stress. For instance, they also tracked other genes that should remain unaffected or decline under desiccation. As expected, genes that are needed for basic survival remained stable, while genes responsible for bacterial movement declined in dry soil, where mobility is restricted. Even some species that were not favored by desiccation saw an increase in resistance-related genes, “which is even stronger evidence,” Shan said.

Geographic Limitations

As the researchers combed through publicly available metagenomic data libraries, they had to select collections with strict control of all variables and in which the only changing factor was water content. That limited the analysis to five locations: two grasslands and a sorghum field in California; a forest in Valais, Switzerland; and a wetland in Nanchang, China.

The scarcity of locations might limit how extrapolable these results are, said Fiona Walsh, a microbiologist at Maynooth University in Ireland who was not involved with the work. “There are thousands of high-quality metagenomes available online with excellent metadata. I would really like to see a comparison where they apply their analysis to a broader map of global metagenomic data to see if they reach the same conclusions,” she said.

From the Soil to the Hospital

Drier regions consistently showed a higher number of resistant bacteria cases in hospitals, even after adjusting for confounding factors such as local income.

The study also suggests that dry soils might be a hidden driver of clinical cases of antibiotic resistance worldwide. The authors combined hospital data on the number of cases of resistant infections from 116 countries with the local aridity index, which measures temperature and precipitation, for each location. They found a strong correlation: Drier regions consistently showed a higher number of resistant bacteria cases in hospitals, even after adjusting for confounding factors such as local income.

However, the authors admitted that this is only a correlation effect and doesn’t prove causation. “It motivates follow-up research to see how environmental concentration weighs against human overuse and poor stewardship,” Newman said.

Even this correlation could be a stretch, according to microbiologist Sara Soto, head of the Global Viral and Bacterial Infections Programme at the Instituto de Salud Global de Barcelona. At the end of the day, she said, the authors have soil data from only five locations in three countries, and they are not tracking the specific bacterial varieties that make people sick, only resistance genes.

For the thesis to be solid, Soto said, the ideal approach would have been to contrast hospital strains from a specific area with soil data from that same region during the same drought episode. “Making such a vast inference—that what happens in the soil of one location affects what happens in a hospital elsewhere—is a big leap,” she said.

The authors, however, point out that resistance genes from soils can eventually make their way into human pathogens. Microbes have the capacity to share genetic material across species—a process known as horizontal gene transfer. In their analysis, the team identified specific resistance sequences that appeared to have been transferred between soil bacteria relatively recently, perhaps within the past decade. How they are reaching hospitals remains a matter for a future study, they said.

As droughts increase in numerous regions in the face of climate change, this selective pressure within soil ecosystems is expected to intensify. Though these findings do not show that drought directly puts drug-resistant pathogens in hospitals, they still suggest that a drying climate could set the scene for an increase in antibiotic resistance, the researchers report.

—Javier Barbuzano (@javibar.bsky.social), Science Writer

Citation: Barbuzano, J. (2026), Antibiotic resistance might get a boost from droughts, Eos, 107, https://doi.org/10.1029/2026EO260132. Published on 29 April 2026. Text © 2026. The authors. CC BY-NC-ND 3.0
Except where otherwise noted, images are subject to copyright. Any reuse without express permission from the copyright owner is prohibited.

How much of the essential trace element iron remains available for marine life in the ocean depends critically on the diversity of organic molecules in seawater, according to new research published in Nature Communications by an international team led by Dr. Martha Gledhill from GEOMAR.

Publication date: 1 July 2026

Source: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, Volume 685

Author(s):

Publication date: 1 July 2026

Source: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, Volume 685

Author(s): Jie Wu, Alessio Pontesilli, Marco Brenna, Shane J. Cronin, Sung-Hyun Park, Joali Paredes-Mariño, Kyle Hamilton, Marta Ribó, David Adams, Mila Huebsch

Publication date: 1 July 2026

Source: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, Volume 685

Author(s): Xiaona Ma, Weitao Wang, Shanhui Xu, Wei Yang, Bao Deng, Yunpeng Zhang, Ziye Yu, Xiang Huang, Min Ji

Publication date: 1 July 2026

Source: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, Volume 685

Author(s): Janine L. Andrys, Katherine A. Kelley, Elizabeth Cottrell