# Surveys in Geophysics

The latest content available from Springer
Updated: 1 day 4 hours ago

### Uncertainties in Long-Term Twenty-First Century Process-Based Coastal Sea-Level Projections

Mon, 10/21/2019 - 00:00
Abstract

Many processes affect sea level near the coast. In this paper, we discuss the major uncertainties in coastal sea-level projections from a process-based perspective, at different spatial and temporal scales, and provide an outlook on how these uncertainties may be reduced. Uncertainty in centennial global sea-level rise is dominated by the ice sheet contributions. Geographical variations in projected sea-level change arise mainly from dynamical patterns in the ocean response and other geophysical processes. Finally, the uncertainties in the short-duration extreme sea-level events are controlled by near coastal processes, storms and tides.

Categories:

### Satellite Altimetry Measurements of Sea Level in the Coastal Zone

Wed, 10/16/2019 - 00:00
Abstract

Satellite radar altimetry provides a unique sea level data set that extends over more than 25 years back in time and that has an almost global coverage. However, when approaching the coasts, the extraction of correct sea level estimates is challenging due to corrupted waveforms and to errors in most of the corrections and in some auxiliary information used in the data processing. The development of methods dedicated to the improvement of altimeter data in the coastal zone dates back to the 1990s, but the major progress happened during the last decade thanks to progress in radar technology [e.g., synthetic aperture radar (SAR) mode and Ka-band frequency], improved waveform retracking algorithms, the availability of new/improved corrections (e.g., wet troposphere and tidal models) and processing workflows oriented to the coastal zone. Today, a set of techniques exists for the processing of coastal altimetry data, generally called “coastal altimetry.” They have been used to generate coastal altimetry products. Altimetry is now recognized as part of the integrated observing system devoted to coastal sea level monitoring. In this article, we review the recent technical advances in processing and the new technological capabilities of satellite radar altimetry in the coastal zone. We also illustrate the fast-growing use of coastal altimetry data sets in coastal sea level research and applications, as high-frequency (tides and storm surge) and long-term sea level change studies.

Categories:

### Guest Editorial: Relationships Between Coastal Sea Level and Large-Scale Ocean Circulation

Tue, 10/15/2019 - 00:00
Categories:

### Trends of Coastal Sea Level Between 1993 and 2015: Imprints of Atmospheric Forcing and Oceanic Chaos

Fri, 10/11/2019 - 00:00
Abstract

The observation and simulation of the variability of coastal sea level are impacted by various uncertainties, such as measurement errors and sampling biases, unresolved processes, and model and forcing biases. Ocean model simulations suggest that another uncertainty should be taken into account for the attribution of sea-level changes. Global ocean simulations indeed show that resolving mesoscale turbulence (even partly) promotes the emergence of low-frequency (LF) chaotic intrinsic variability (CIV) which causes substantial random fluctuations of sea level up to multiple decades in eddy-active regions of the world ocean. This random LFCIV is superimposed on the atmospherically forced (or simply “forced”) fluctuations, which are directly controlled by the atmospheric variability. We show from a large ensemble of global oceanic hindcasts that this multi-decadal LFCIV leaves a substantial imprint on the long-term trends (1993–2015) of coastal sea level: over 17–20% of the global ocean coastal area, in particular along the coastlines of the northwestern Pacific and Indian Oceans, and around the Gulf of Mexico, random sea-level trends may blur their atmospherically forced counterpart, such that simulated (and potentially observed) coastal sea-level trends cannot be unambiguously attributed to atmospheric or anthropic causes. The steric and manometric sea-level change contributions of these uncertainties are discussed, suggesting that they mostly come from the manometric sea-level trends near the coasts.

Categories:

### Geophysical Techniques for Monitoring Settlement Phenomena Occurring in Reinforced Concrete Buildings

Sat, 09/28/2019 - 00:00
Abstract

Geophysical investigations could provide a valid tool for the identification of possible causes of settlement phenomena that affect civil buildings. They provide a non-invasive method of obtaining high-resolution information about the subsoil, saving time and money. However, uncertainties related to the accurate interpretation of the acquired data could potentially reduce the value of these methods. For this reason, the integration of non-invasive tests with direct measurements to support geophysical data interpretation is strongly recommended. This is a fundamental step in the process of defining a sufficiently reliable geological model to explain the cause of failure. Among the various geophysical techniques, electrical resistivity tomography and ground penetrating radar offer significant advantages for monitoring the status of the conservation of civil engineering structures and infrastructures. This paper presents the most recent and beneficial advances of the use of electric and electromagnetic geophysical methods in the field of civil engineering, with particular attention to their applications for monitoring subsidence and settlement phenomena. Finally, the possibilities of the joint use of resistivity and electromagnetic methods for studying the causes of the structural decay that affects two precast buildings are monitored and discussed. The results demonstrate the capability of combining non-destructive geophysical techniques with direct data, for evaluating the safety of building constructions and solving geotechnical problems.

Categories:

### Reflection and Transmission of Plane Elastic Waves at an Interface Between Two Double-Porosity Media: Effect of Local Fluid Flow

Fri, 09/27/2019 - 00:00
Abstract

We obtain the reflection and transmission coefficients for inhomogeneous plane waves incident on a flat interface separating two double-porosity media described by the Biot–Rayleigh model, which takes into account the effect of local fluid flow (LFF). Three longitudinal and one transverse waves are reflected and transmitted, represented by potential functions specified by the propagation and attenuation directions. The continuity of the energy at the interface for sealed and open-boundary conditions yields a system of equations for the coefficients, and the expressions of the energy ratios for the reflected and refracted waves are derived in closed form. Numerical examples showing the magnitude, phase and energy ratio as a function of frequency and incidence angle are carried out to investigate the influence of the inhomogeneity angle, boundary condition, type of incidence wave and LFF effect. The results confirm that the LFF affects the reflection and transmission behaviors for the incident P1 and SV waves, irrespective of whether the interface is open or sealed. The effect causes interference fluxes between different waves, a consequence of energy conservation at the interface. We also perform full-waveform simulations to validate the results.

Categories:

### Uncertainty and Resolution Analysis of 2D and 3D Inversion Models Computed from Geophysical Electromagnetic Data

Tue, 09/24/2019 - 00:00
Abstract

A meaningful solution to an inversion problem should be composed of the preferred inversion model and its uncertainty and resolution estimates. The model uncertainty estimate describes an equivalent model domain in which each model generates responses which fit the observed data to within a threshold value. The model resolution matrix measures to what extent the unknown true solution maps into the preferred solution. However, most current geophysical electromagnetic (also gravity, magnetic and seismic) inversion studies only offer the preferred inversion model and ignore model uncertainty and resolution estimates, which makes the reliability of the preferred inversion model questionable. This may be caused by the fact that the computation and analysis of an inversion model depend on multiple factors, such as the misfit or objective function, the accuracy of the forward solvers, data coverage and noise, values of trade-off parameters, the initial model, the reference model and the model constraints. Depending on the particular method selected, large computational costs ensue. In this review, we first try to cover linearised model analysis tools such as the sensitivity matrix, the model resolution matrix and the model covariance matrix also providing a partially nonlinear description of the equivalent model domain based on pseudo-hyperellipsoids. Linearised model analysis tools can offer quantitative measures. In particular, the model resolution and covariance matrices measure how far the preferred inversion model is from the true model and how uncertainty in the measurements maps into model uncertainty. We also cover nonlinear model analysis tools including changes to the preferred inversion model (nonlinear sensitivity tests), modifications of the data set (using bootstrap re-sampling and generalised cross-validation), modifications of data uncertainty, variations of model constraints (including changes to the trade-off parameter, reference model and matrix regularisation operator), the edgehog method, most-squares inversion and global searching algorithms. These nonlinear model analysis tools try to explore larger parts of the model domain than linearised model analysis and, hence, may assemble a more comprehensive equivalent model domain. Then, to overcome the bottleneck of computational cost in model analysis, we present several practical algorithms to accelerate the computation. Here, we emphasise linearised model analysis, as efficient computation of nonlinear model uncertainty and resolution estimates is mainly determined by fast forward and inversion solvers. In the last part of our review, we present applications of model analysis to models computed from individual and joint inversions of electromagnetic data; we also describe optimal survey design and inversion grid design as important applications of model analysis. The currently available model uncertainty and resolution analyses are mainly for 1D and 2D problems due to the limitations in computational cost. With significant enhancements of computing power, 3D model analyses are expected to be increasingly used and to help analyse and establish confidence in 3D inversion models.

Categories:

### On the Use of Electromagnetics for Earth Imaging of the Polar Regions

Thu, 09/12/2019 - 00:00
Abstract

The polar regions are host to fundamental unresolved challenges in Earth studies. The nature of these regions necessitates the use of geophysics to address these issues, with electromagnetic and, in particular, magnetotelluric studies finding favour and being applied over a number of different scales. The unique geography and climatic conditions of the polar regions means collecting magnetotelluric data at high latitudes, which presents challenges not typically encountered and may result in significant measurement errors. (1) The very high contact resistance between electrodes and the surficial snow and ice cover (commonly MΩ) can interfere with the electric field measurement. This is overcome by using custom-designed amplifiers placed at the active electrodes to buffer their high impedance contacts. (2) The proximity to the geomagnetic poles requires verification of the fundamental assumption in magnetotellurics that the magnetic source field is a vertically propagating, horizontally polarised plane wave. Behaviour of the polar electro-jet must be assessed to identify increased activity (high energy periods) that create strong current systems and may generate non-planar contributions. (3) The generation of ‘blizstatic’, localised random electric fields caused by the spin drift of moving charged snow and ice particles that produce significant noise in the electric fields during periods of strong winds. At wind speeds above ~ 10 m s−1, the effect of the distortion created by the moving snow is broad-band. Station occupation times need to be of sufficient length to ensure data are collected when wind speed is low. (4) Working on glaciated terrain introduces additional safety challenges, e.g., weather, crevasse hazards, etc. Inclusion of a mountaineer in the team, both during the site location planning and onsite operations, allows these hazards to be properly managed. Examples spanning studies covering development and application of novel electromagnetic approaches for the polar regions as well as results from studies addressing a variety of differing geologic questions are presented. Electromagnetic studies focusing on near-surface hydrologic systems, glacial and ice sheet dynamics, as well as large-scale volcanic and tectonic problems are discussed providing an overview of the use of electromagnetic methods to investigate fundamental questions in solid earth studies that have both been completed and are currently ongoing in polar regions.

Categories:

### Automated Data Selection in the Tau– p Domain: Application to Passive Surface Wave Imaging

Sun, 09/01/2019 - 00:00
Abstract

In the recent decades, passive surface wave methods have gained much attention in the near-surface community due to their ability to retrieve low-frequency surface wave information. Temporal averaging over a sufficiently long period of time is a crucial step in the workflow to fulfill the randomization requirement of the stationary source distribution. Because of logistical constraints, passive seismic acquisition in urban areas is mostly limited to short recording periods. Due to insufficient temporal averaging, contributions from non-stationary sources can smear the stacked dispersion measurements, especially for the low-frequency band. We formulate a criterion in the tau–p domain for selective stacking of dispersion measurements from passive surface waves and apply it to high-frequency (> 1 Hz) traffic noise. The criterion is based on the automated detection of input data with a high signal-to-noise ratio in a desired velocity range. Modeling tests demonstrate the ability of the proposed criterion to capture the contributions from the non-stationary sources and classify the passive surface wave data. A real-world application shows that the proposed data selection approach improves the dispersion measurements by extending the frequency band below 5 Hz and attenuating the distortion between 6 and 13 Hz. Our results indicate that significant improvements can be obtained by considering tau–p-based data selection in the workflow of passive surface wave processing and interpretation.

Categories:

### MOCASS: A Satellite Mission Concept Using Cold Atom Interferometry for Measuring the Earth Gravity Field

Sun, 09/01/2019 - 00:00
Abstract

Both GRACE and GOCE have proven to be very successful missions, providing a wealth of data which are exploited for geophysical studies such as climate changes, hydrology, sea level changes, solid Earth phenomena, with benefits for society and the whole world population. It is indispensable to continue monitoring gravity and its changes from space, so much so that a GRACE follow-on mission has been launched in 2018. In this paper, a new satellite mission concept named MOCASS is presented, which can be considered as a GOCE follow-on, based on an innovative gradiometer exploiting ultra-cold atom technology and aimed at monitoring Earth mass distribution and its variations in time. The technical aspects regarding the payload will be described, illustrating the measurement principle and the technological characteristics of a cold atom interferometer that can measure gravity gradients. The results of numerical simulations will be presented for a one-arm and a two-arm gradiometer and for different orbit configurations, showing that an improvement with respect to GOCE could be obtained in the estimate of the static gravity field over all the harmonic spectrum (with an expected error of the order of 1 mGal at degree 300 for a 5-year mission) and that estimates are promising also for the time-variable gravity field (although GRACE is still performing better at very low degrees). Finally, the progress achievable by exploiting MOCASS observations for the detection and monitoring of geophysical phenomena will be discussed: the results of simulations of key geophysical themes (such as mass changes due to hydrology, glaciers and tectonic effects) with expected gravity change-rates, time constants and corresponding wavelengths, show that an improvement is attainable and that signals invisible to past satellites could be detected by exploiting the cold atom technology.

Categories:

### Potential Slichter Triplet Detection Using Global Superconducting Gravimeter Data

Sun, 09/01/2019 - 00:00
Abstract

The eigenperiods of the translational oscillation modes of the Earth’s solid inner core, also referred to as the Slichter modes or Slichter triplet, are the key parameters that constrain the density jump across the inner core boundary (ICB). Definite observations of the Slichter triplet are still open. Here, we discuss and investigate this problem using the current most extensive superconducting gravimeter (SG) data, which include 49 records from 35 global stations, altogether spanning about 22 years. Two multi-station stacking methods are employed to process the available SG data, including full-time data and data collected before and after seven major earthquakes, corresponding to persistent and intermittent excitations, respectively. Based on the relationship between the theoretical Slichter periods and the density jump at the ICB, several sets of candidates that could serve as the Slichter triplet are suggested. We identified a complete triplet set that almost coincides with different predictions made based on the PREM Earth model. The synthetic experiments show that Slichter signals excited by continuous sources of excitation may achieve an amplitude of at least 0.04 nGal, which can be detected using our full-time SG data, and the large earthquakes ( $$M_{\mathrm w}\ge 8.4$$ ) that occurred during our detection period might not excite the Slichter modes to a detectable level.

Categories:

### Gravity Maps of the Lithospheric Structure Beneath the Indian Ocean

Sun, 09/01/2019 - 00:00
Abstract

The lithospheric structure beneath the Indian Ocean is probably the most complicated, but at the same time, the least understood among world’s oceans. Results of tomographic, geochemical, magnetic and other surveys provide the evidence of its complex geological history. Seismic surveys have been a primary source of information about the lithospheric structure beneath the Indian Ocean, but these experiments are mainly concentrated at locations of a high geophysical interest. Marine gravity data obtained from processing the satellite altimetry measurements, on the other hand, deliver a detailed image of the whole seafloor relief, advancing further the knowledge about its formation, tectonism and volcanism. In this study, we use gravitational, bathymetric, marine sediment and lithospheric density structure data to compile the Bouguer and mantle gravity maps. We then use both gravity maps to interpret the lithospheric structure beneath the Indian Ocean. The Bouguer gravity map reveals major tectonic and volcanic features that are spatially correlated with crustal thickness variations. The mantle gravity map exhibits mainly a thermal signature of the lithospheric mantle. Gravity lows in this gravity map mark distinctively active oceanic divergent tectonic margins along the Central, Southeast and Southwest Indian Ridges including also the Carlsberg Ridge. Gravity lows extend along the Red Sea–Gulf of Aden and East African Rift Systems, confirming a connection between mid-oceanic spreading ridges (in the Indian Ocean) and continental rift systems (in East Africa). The combined interpretation of the Bouguer and mantle gravity maps confirms a non-collisional origin of mountain ranges along continental rift systems in East Africa. The evidence of a southern extension of the East African Rift System and its link with the Southwest Indian Ridge in the mantle gravity map is absent. Similarly, the ongoing breakup of the composite Indo-Australian plate is not manifested. A missing thermal signature in the mantle gravity map at these two locations is explained by the fact that the southern Nubian-Somalian plate boundary (i.e., the Lwandle plate) and the Indo-Australian plate boundary (i.e., the Capricorn plate) are diffuse zones of convergence, characterized by low deformation and seismicity due to very slow rates of relative motions accommodated across these boundaries. The clear manifestation of the thermal signature of intraplate hot spots in the mantle gravity map is also absent. This finding agrees with the evidence from direct heat flow measurements that do not indicate the presence of a significant positive temperature anomaly compared to the oceanic lithosphere of a similar age.

Categories:

### Recent Developments in Local Wave Decomposition Methods for Understanding Seismic Data: Application to Seismic Interpretation

Sun, 09/01/2019 - 00:00
Abstract

This article provides a general overview of local wave decomposition (LWD) methods including empirical mode decomposition (EMD), ensemble EMD, complete ensemble EMD with adaptive noise, synchrosqueezed transform and variational mode decomposition applied to seismic interpretation, covering the theoretical background and applications. We explain how LWD methods can be reviewed as a special and stronger case of the classical seismic time–frequency methods and place emphasis on the interest of using such LWD methods in seismic instantaneous frequency extraction, seismic attenuation estimation and seismic resolution enhancement.

Categories:

### Analytical Solutions of Gravity Vector and Gravity Gradient Tensor Caused by a 2D Polygonal Body with a 2D Polynomial Density Contrast

Sun, 09/01/2019 - 00:00
Abstract

In this paper, analytical solutions are presented for the gravity vector and gravity gradient tensor at any point produced by a 2D body whose cross-section is an arbitrary polygon and the density contrast is a 2D arbitrary-order polynomial function varying in both horizontal and vertical directions. In addition, we analyze the singularity of our expressions. For the gravity vector, the singularity points only exist at the vertices of the polygon. But for the gravity gradient tensor, there are two situations: (1) if every side of the polygon is not parallel to z-axis, the singularity points will only exist at the vertices of the polygon; (2) if there is any side parallel to z-axis in the polygon, all the points on the line passing through the side parallel to z-axis will become singularity points. To avoid this singularity, observation points can be moved from the singularity points by a minimal distance. Besides, the analytic expressions are validated compared with conventional method that sums up the gravity effects of a series of units with uniform densities, with the numerical stability also being evaluated through numerical tests. What is more, applications with some numerical examples and effective models show that our analytical solution within the range of numerical stability is superior in computational accuracy and efficiency to the conventional method that sums up the gravity effects of a series of units with uniform densities. In a word, our expressions provide an effective method for computing the gravity vector and gravity gradient tensor of an irregular 2D body with complicated density variation.

Categories:

### Deformation-Induced Topographic Effects in Interpretation of Spatiotemporal Gravity Changes: Review of Approaches and New Insights

Sun, 09/01/2019 - 00:00
Abstract

We investigate the origin and implications of deformation-induced gravitational effects in interpretation of spatiotemporal gravity changes. We review the traditional approaches to handling the attraction of subsurface and surface deformations. These effects are relevant when inferring magmatic processes in volcano geodetic studies. We focus on the surface constituent, the deformation-induced topographic effect (DITE), which consists of a gradient effect called the free-air effect (FAE) and an attraction effect referred here as the topographic deformation effect. We present defining, alternate, as well as approximate expressions for evaluating the DITE. The alternate expressions shed light on the physical nature of DITE. By simulating numerically synthetic displacement fields of diverse shapes and areal extents imposed over terrain of various relief shapes in a referential volcanic area of prominent and rugged topographic relief, we assess the suitability and accuracy of the various approximations of DITE. Synthetic case studies are carried out using a high-resolution high-accuracy DEM and the Toposk software for evaluation of topographic attraction terms. We discuss the particularities and complications in numerical evaluation of each of the DITE expressions. We close with a conclusion that the best numerical prescription for accurate evaluation of DITE is Eq. (18) derived herein. Its numerical realization requires the knowledge of the deformation field in areal form. If the vertical displacements are known only at benchmarks, two approximations of DITE are at hand that can be numerically evaluated: the normal-FAE approximation (nFAE-DITE) and the planar Bouguer approximation (BCFAG-DITE). Based on synthetic simulations, we specify under what circumstances which approximation performs better.

Categories:

### On the Observability of the Time-Variable Lithospheric Signal in Satellite Magnetic Data

Sun, 09/01/2019 - 00:00
Abstract

The lithospheric magnetic field, which is one of the main objectives of ESA’s mission Swarm, is slowly varying in time due to an induced component. This variation is small (usually it is omitted in the lithospheric modelling) but recent advances in processing strategies and still-growing amount of satellite data open questions whether such an effect should be considered in the development of the lithospheric models—when using data from missions like CHAMP and Swarm. This effect can now be estimated over a period of 17 years (since the launch of CHAMP), and it is shown how the satellite measurements (over the observable part of the spectrum) can be referenced to one common epoch. For this purpose, we first inverted the magnetic field vector from CHAOS-6 over degrees 21–120, after subtraction of a remanent model, to a vertically integrated susceptibility map. Using this susceptibility distribution and taking into account the evolving core fields from the CHAOS-6 model, the time-varying lithospheric signal is computed. The results depend on the time span and the altitude considered, e.g., an altitude of 400 km and a span of 17 years can produce more than 0.5 nT variations resulting in a peak-to-peak value of nearly 1 nT. The vertically integrated quantities appear to be a useful choice for parameterising lithospheric time variations, also for providing data corrections at the satellite altitude. The effect of the choice of the core field, which enters the inversion, on the lithospheric time variation is also studied—this effect is found less important even for core fields 20 years apart.

Categories:

### A Machine Learning-Based Data Fusion Approach for Improved Corrosion Testing

Sat, 08/24/2019 - 00:00
Abstract

This work presents machine learning-inspired data fusion approaches to improve the nondestructive testing of reinforced concrete. The principal effects that are used for data fusion are shown theoretically. Their effectiveness is tested in case studies carried out on large-scale concrete specimens with built-in chloride-induced rebar corrosion. The dataset consists of half-cell potential mapping, Wenner resistivity, microwave moisture and ground penetrating radar measurements. Data fusion is based on the logistic regression algorithm. It learns an optimal linear decision boundary from multivariate labeled training data, to separate intact and defect areas. The training data are generated in an experiment that simulates the entire life cycle of chloride-exposed concrete building parts. The unique possibility to monitor the deterioration, and targeted corrosion initiation, allows data labeling. The results exhibit an improved sensitivity of the data fusion with logistic regression compared to the best individual method half-cell potential.

Categories:

### Using Ground Penetrating Radar Methods to Investigate Reinforced Concrete Structures

Wed, 08/21/2019 - 00:00
Abstract

This paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the subject of ground penetrating radar (GPR) methods for the investigation of reinforced concrete structures. An overview of the use of concrete and reinforced concrete in civil engineering infrastructures is given. A review of the main destructive and non-destructive testing methods in the field is presented, and an increase in the use of GPR to reinforced concrete structures is highlighted. It was also observed that research in some application areas has been predominantly or exclusively carried out at a laboratory scale, and that similarly, other more application-oriented research has been developed only on real-life structures. The effectiveness of GPR in these areas is demonstrated. Furthermore, a case study is presented on a new methodological and data processing approach for the assessment of reinforced concrete structures using a high-frequency dual-polarised antenna system. Results have proven the advantages of using the proposed methodology and GPR system in order to improve the detectability of rebars, including secondary bottom lines of reinforcement. The horizontal polarisation was proven to be more stable compared to the vertical. Finally, it has been demonstrated that a more accurate location of the rebars in a high-density grid mesh arrangement can be obtained by means of data migration processing with a scan spacing of 5 cm and wave velocity information through the use of the hyperbola fitting method from at least 30% of the targets.

Categories:

### Impacts of Basin-Scale Climate Modes on Coastal Sea Level: a Review

Mon, 08/19/2019 - 00:00
Abstract

Global sea level rise (SLR) associated with a warming climate exerts significant stress on coastal societies and low-lying island regions. The rates of coastal SLR observed in the past few decades, however, have large spatial and temporal differences from the global mean, which to a large part have been attributed to basin-scale climate modes. In this paper, we review our current state of knowledge about climate modes’ impacts on coastal sea level variability from interannual-to-multidecadal timescales. Relevant climate modes, their impacts and associated driving mechanisms through both remote and local processes are elaborated separately for the Pacific, Indian and Atlantic Oceans. This paper also identifies major issues and challenges for future research on climate modes’ impacts on coastal sea level. Understanding the effects of climate modes is essential for skillful near-term predictions and reliable uncertainty quantifications for future projections of coastal SLR.

Categories:

### Transport Infrastructure Monitoring by InSAR and GPR Data Fusion

Wed, 08/14/2019 - 00:00
Abstract

This study reviews research developments in non-destructive assessment of linear transport infrastructures. The main focus will be on the integration between satellite remote sensing and ground-based techniques. Specifically, the potential of using interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) and high-frequency ground penetrating radar (GPR) techniques as self-standing and integrated survey methodologies will be discussed. To this effect, an overview on data fusion techniques will be given. The last section of the paper reports recent results achieved by using both GPR systems and the permanent scatterers InSAR technique on a real-life railway.

Categories:

Theme by Danetsoft and Danang Probo Sayekti inspired by Maksimer